This is my assignment, with professor's comments, for my "Introduction to Religious Studies" class. The assignment was to find out how each of the three Eastern religions, Taoism, Confucianism, and Shintoism hope to achieve "harmony" within their respective belief systems. I received a grade of 82%.
We examine in the three Eastern religions of Taoism, Confucianism, and Shintoism, the means by which they hope to achieve harmony in, and with their respective worlds.
The first of these religions Daoism, also known as Taoism, comes from the word “Dao”, or “Tao”, which is most often translated as “the way” from the Asian languages.It is the ideal of unity in which all things are supposed to come together in harmony.
“Taoism as a religion is the practice of finding harmony in relation to one’s actions in the world and station in life. Believing in Taoism is the belief that “the universe is one, yet always moving and changing” (Ellwood p192).
In Taoism, “Ultimate reality” or what we may understand as the “God principle”, is “the great way down in which the universe moves from a hierarchal structure in which the universe is constructed” (pg. 192). All things are interconnected but still have go from the infinitely large down to the infinitesimal. In Taoism the universe has no beginning and no end. In regards to humans we can give ourselves over to sharing in the universe’s “evolution”. We are taught that we can become immortal by mastering the Dao and its power. One learns to do this by following the various teachings of sages. The most referenced texts in Daoism are the writings of Laozi, who wrote the Dao de Jing, or Tao te ching, and Zhuang who is known for the Zhuangzi. Although these texts have been edited throughout the centuries by various anonymous authors, they are still the most referenced and highest revered texts in Daoism. (1)
Although there is no rigid definition of the Dao, or “the way”, and how the practitioner is expected to follow “the way”, there is some fundamental understanding of how the goal of Taoism is realized.
In the practice of worship, the goal of the Taoist is to “live spontaneously and close to nature” on the basic level, in more advanced levels of worship, one is expected to “meditate and perform rites that draw one close to gods and immortals” (pg 192). The practioner of Daoism is encouraged in his faith by visiting its respective temples, living in monasteries, and seeking the guidance of the Daoist priesthood.
The Tao and how to know it, live it and construct a society that exemplifies it is the great theme of Chinese thought and the religious expressions closely related to it” (pg 173). ‘In asking how to get back on the track of the Dao, the Chinese believed there were three realms where Dao could be experienced: nature, human society, and one’s own inner being”. The question was, how are these to be lined up, with what priorities, and with what techniques for ascertaining the “message” of the Dao?” (pg 173)
“The answers fell into two categories: Confucian and Daoist. The basic difference was that Confucians thought the Dao, or Tian ( the will of heaven) as they often called it, was best found by humans within human tradition and society and so was explored through human relationships and rituals and by the use of human reason. The Daoists thought that reason and society perverted the Dao—that it was best found alone in the rapture of merging with infinite nature and the mystical and marvelous”. (Pg 173)
In Daoism, one hopes to achieve immortality, and “the three main highways” to it were: 1) alchemy, 2) yoga, and 3) merit” (pg 193).
Alchemy, for the Daoist, was the pursuit of overcoming death “through the manipulation of one’s Yin and Yang and the five elements” (pg. 193). It was hoped, through the development of elixirs that were “spiritually prepared”, that one could achieve immortality. (pg. 193)
Yoga, to the Daoist, meant using breathing techniques, in combination with diet, and sexual practices, to produce inside oneself a “spiritual embryo”, that would allow oneself to grow a new body inside of the old one.
The third and last “highway” to Daoist immortality was merit. Merit was the act of doing good deeds for others, showing compassion to others, and acts of charity. One had to be extremely careful not to do anything that would earn oneself a demerit, because if this occurred, all of one’s spiritual credit would be lost, and the practioner would have to begin their path anew. (pg. 194)
Confucianism, named after the philosopher Confucius, a Latinized form of the Chinese K'ung-fu-tzu, or "Master K'ung." (2). He wrote and compiled the classical literature of five books, which were the foundation for his philosophy, and which are the most referenced texts in the practice of Confucianism to this day.
“The basic structures of society”, Confucius felt, “were adequate”. The needful thing was to convince people they must act in accordance with the roles society has given them. The father must act like a father; the son, like a son; the ruler must be a real ruler like those of old, wise and benevolent; the minister of state must be true civil servants, loyal and fearless and self giving” (pg 175).
“This change to becoming what one “is” (called rectification of names) must first of all be within oneself. A person must be motivated by virtue, or ren, a typically vague but eloquent term suggestive of humanity, love, high principle, and living together in harmony. It is the way of the “jun-zi”, the superior man, who as the Confucian ideal suggests, is a man at once a scholar, a selfless servant of society, and a gentleman steeped in courtesy and tradition; as an official and family head, he continually puts philosophy into practice” (pg 175).
“Confucius conceded that this noble ideal is enforced by no outside sanctions except the opinion of good men, for it was based on no belief in divine reward or punishment after death. Its sincere practice in this life might, as often as not, result in exile and hunger rather than honor from princes. Yet in the end it draws men by the sheer attractiveness of the good, and by the fact that it embodies Dao, and so to follow ren is to align oneself with the way things are”. (pg. 175)
It is believed by Confucius that “external influences, then, can aid in the inner development of ren. This leads to another very important Confucian term-li. It indicates rites, proper conduct, ceremonies, courtesy, doing things the right way. Despite a professed lack of concern about ghosts and gods, for Confucius the performance of rituals was extremely important”. (pg. 178)
“Li needs to be understood as Confucius understood it, not as cold or mere formalism but as a supremely humanizing act. Animals act out of the lust or violent emotion of the moment, but humankind can rise above this in the societies it creates, and Li exemplifies this potential Lie expresses as society that becomes a great dance and thus acts in harmony. In ritual, everyone acts out proper relationships and has a structured place. Ritual generates order in place of chaos and nurtures “rectification of names”. It can be hoped that if a person acts out, if only ritually, the proper conduct of his or her station in life often enough, in time she or he will interiorize the action, and the inner and outer will become one: the ritual father a true father, the ritual prince a true prince. Li, then is meant to stimulate ren, even as melodious music induces calmness and heroic poetry valor” (pg 178).
Confucius thought, “it is within society that humanity comes to its best, for here the mutual stimuli of ren and li can be operative. Here is the key point of difference with the Daoists, who contend that society, or at least its regulations and rituals and mandatory relations, obscure the Dao. For Confucius, it was precisely in these social expressions that the Tao became visible and “spoke” to mankind”. (pg 178)
“Society for Confucius was founded on the five relationships: 1) ruler and subject, 2) father and son, 3) husband and wife, 4) elder and younger brother, 5) friend and friend. In all of these, proper behavior, or li, was required to give what is simply biological or spontaneous the structure that makes it into human society—that makes it into human society—calm and enduring for the benefit of all” (pg. 178 Ellwood). To the follower of Confucius, one found harmony in the world through the perfection of performing, or acting out, the role of one’s station in life in society.
One attains satisfaction, or harmony, when one acts according to the “real nature of things that the virtueless devotee of passion and gain can never know and that finally makes such a person’s life hollow”. Confucius believed that man’s essential nature is good, only being polluted by bad influences, and will naturally turn towards good when “good examples and social conditions are present” (pg 175). It is up to the ruler of the people to make sure the conditions exist for the people to find their natural “goodness” or the Dao. Once these conditions exist, it is then up to the common person to fulfill what role they have in society, so that they can find harmony within that society.
The third religion that we are trying to analyze is Shintoism. “Shinto” means “to the way of the Gods”, and is an ancient Japanese religion, starting at about 500 years before the birth of Christ, some say it may have begun earlier than that. It was originally "an amorphous mix of nature worship, fertility cults, divination techniques, hero worship, and shamanism." (3).
“Unlike most other religions, Shinto has no real founder, no written scriptures, no body of religious law, and only a very loosely-organized priesthood” (3). Although “Shinto does not have as fully developed a theology as do most other religions, it does not have its own moral code. Shintoists generally follow the code of Confucianism” (3). According to Ellwood, Shintoism “is a broad path offering a pattern of rites, attitudes, and subtle experiences that harmonize humankind with the many faces of its spiritual environment in the context of an ancient culture” (pg. 216).
The four basic truths, or what is known as “affirmations” that are inherent in the practice of shinotism are: “1) of tradition, 2) of life in this world, 3) of purity, and 4) of festival” (pg 216).
Even though every Shinto shrine is unique in its own individual set of traditions, with some ancient and some more modern, these traditions nevertheless serve the purpose of connecting the past to the present.
The affirmation of life in this world is very similar to the Shinto affirmation of tradition. Shintoism is “the religion of clans and their communal spirit, of joyous festivals and bountiful harvests”, affirming the “good things of this world and natural relationships” (pg 216).
Shintoism places great importance on purity and the avoidance of pollution, even going so far as to perform funerals away from its sacred places. In trying to avoid impurity, Shintoism tries to affirm the “persistence and superiority of life and joy”. (pg. 217)
In its fourth affirmation, the one of festival, it is in the attempt to stir the Kami, or the deity of the shrine, to life by beating the drums during a Shinto festival, or Matsuri. It is during these festivals that the “dynamism of the divine side of reality is manifested” (pg 217). The Kami is the individual god to which a shrine is devoted to, and by rituals and worship, the follower of Shintoism hopes to invoke its benevolence upon them. There are many Kami within Shintoism, each deity is regarded as local, and each Kami are worshipped differently, according to the location of the shrine.
It is the goal of these religions that the more we align within them, to their rituals and practices, to their observances and duties, that we become mirrors of their ideals. We are putting to rest, or trying to extinguish the fire of passion within us, so that we enjoythe world and become harmoniously one with it. We rest in the knowledge that the worldis us, and we are the world.
Works Cited:
Ellwood, Robert S., McGraw, Barbara A. Many Peoples, Many Faiths Pearson
Education, 2009
(1) http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/#Important
(2) http://www.religionfacts.com/a-z-religion-index/confucianism.htm
(3) http://www.religioustolerance.org/shinto.htm
The essay is very informative about these religions, but needs to be organized using a thesis to explain the harmony each seeks. Also, more of the the body of the essay needs to be in your own words, using quotes as needed to support your points. Much of the essay consisted of what appear to be lengthy quotes - especially the section on Confucianism. The section on Shinto: cite the passage for when Shinto was "founded;" the idea that it dates to 500 BCE is suspect. For citations in general - either use footnotes or cite in the (author, page) format. This includes websites, although without the page number: (Taoism) would refer to the Stanford site.
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